Modelling of Milk Emulsion Drying in Spray Dryers

Question: What is the Modeling of Milk Emulsion Drying in Spray Dryers? Answer: Presentation In this report we will examine about the idea of demonstrating of milk emulsion drying in splash dryers. The milk emulsion drying is a mechanical procedure which is utilized for creating powdered milk. This procedure is performed with the assistance of shower dryers. The shower drying process is a technique to deliver a dry powder from a fluid or slurry by utilizing a hot gas. It is most favored technique for drying. Thusly, if there should be an occurrence of milk emulsion drying procedure to create milk powder splash drying process is actualized in ventures with the assistance of shower dryers. The motivation behind creation this report is to examine foundation, points, goals, writing audit and techniques of displaying of milk emulsion drying in shower dryers. Following is the figure of powdered milk creation (Threlfall-Holmes, 2009). Figure: Flow Chart of Powered Milk Production As in above figure we can see utilization of shower dryers underway of milk fueled and it is a finished stream outline of milk emulsion drying in splash dryers. Conversation The conveyance of crude milk from ranches comprises of its examination and the base of this review is legitimate guideline of substance, bacteriological arrangement and sensorial. When endorsement is got from this initial step then explanation of milk emulsion is done through separators, heat exchangers are utilized for heat reason and afterward stockpiling is done in tanks at 4C. In last advance, the proportion of milk fat is changed in accordance with all out solids and last item is created according to necessities. Presently, in next fragments of report we will underscore on previously mentioned ideas in detail, for example, foundation, points, writing survey and so on. It is important to completely comprehend by and large procedure of milk emulsion drying. Foundation The splash drying hardware and methods were created over a time of quite a few years from 1870s. The method of splash drying for displaying milk emulsion for drying was come during World War II. The explanation behind utilizing this strategy was abrupt need to decrease the heaviness of transport of food and different materials. While dissecting about milk emulsion for drying in shower dryers, we became more acquainted with about some underlying suppositions in regards to this procedure and these presumptions have been following for long time (Birchal, Passos, 2005). Those suspicions are recorded as beneath: As indicated by first suspicion of milk emulsion drying in splash dryers is that top of the dryer chamber are utilized to infuse hot gas and milk suspension in it at consistent rate. Another suspicion about procedure of milk emulsion is that the gas stage that is framed of air and fume carries on as an ideal blend and furthermore streams inside the dryers. The suspension under this procedure of milk emulsion for drying is homogeneous, uniform drops and atomized shaping round and inside the chamber these are all around blended without cooperating with each other. Next presumption in regards to drain emulsion is that the progression of warmth is from sight-seeing to drops or particles. The angles of temperature inside the particles are unimportant. The drying rate at singular premise is portrayed by water dissipation and move from a solitary molecule to the gas stage (Focus on Powder Coatings, 2003). These above talked about presumptions are viewed as imperative to effectively deal with this procedure of milk emulsion for drying in shower dryers. These suspicions are not new for enterprises those arrangement in milk emulsion for drying. Before start conversation about points of milk emulsion drying, we might want to talk about splash drying process that is utilized for milk emulsion. Hence, in next portion we will underscore on this basic idea. Splash Drying Process for Milk Emulsion There are five significant strides of splash drying that are required to follow for milk emulsion and those means are recorded as beneath: Focus Atomization Bead Air Contact Bead Drying Division Focus: Under this progression, preceding presentation feedstock is exceptionally moved into splash dryer. Atomization: This is another fundamental advance of shower drying process and at this phase of atomization the ideal condition for vanishing to a dried item that have wanted qualities, is made. (Birchal, Huang, Mujumdar, Passos, 2006). Bead Air Contact: Under this progression, atomized fluid is brought into contact of hot gas and it brings about the vanishing over 95% of water that is contained in the drops. Bead Drying: Under this progression, dampness vanishing is done in two phases. During first stage, an adequate measure of dampness is found in drop to supplant the fluid dissipated at the surface and vanishing happens at steady rate. When there is no longer dampness to keep up immersed conditions at surface of bead at that point second stage begins. Absence of dampness makes a dried shell structure at the surface. For this situation, vanishing relies upon the spread of dampness through the shell and it is expanding in thickness. Partition: For conclusive division stage, violent winds, pack channels and electrostatic precipitators are utilized. For purging and to cool the air wet scrubbers are utilized (Nath, Satpathy, 1998). Consequently, by executing above talked about advance, shower drying process is actualized effectively for milk emulsion (Bandhari, 1994). Points or targets The procedure of milk emulsion for drying isn't a simple procedure to perform and the point of this procedure is to furnish a perfect item with better quality norms, for example, size of molecule, dispersion, mass thickness, remaining dampness substance and morphology. The powdered milk has different application regions where it is utilized for making food and other confectionary items. To accomplish this point, splash dryers give proper assistance (Marinos-Kouris, Maroulis, Kiranoudis, 1998). Writing Review As we have examined above fundamental data about demonstrating of milk emulsion drying and from this we became acquainted with that how essential advances are actualized in this procedure to deliver powdered milk. There are different research examines accessible on this subject give bunches of fundamental data about milk emulsion. In writing audit, significant conversation points are identified with milk emulsion incorporates shower drying innovation, its portrayal, demonstrating and reenactment and so on. The conversation about these themes will assist with understanding procedure of milk emulsion and employments of shower dryers. It is a significant section of this report (Martins, Siqueira, Freitas, 2012). The most significant point that is examined in the greater part of writing survey is model improvement that is utilized in procedure of milk emulsion drying for shower dryers. The fundamental things that are associated with advancement of this model are a lot of constitutive mat hematical conditions and these conditions portray mass and move of warmth among gas and a solitary molecule, drying energy of a solitary molecule that is encircled by gas and the capacity of molecule living arrangement time conveyance insider the chamber (Danviriyakul, McClements, Decker, Nawar, Chinachoti, 2002). Other than model turn of events, the writings likewise have audits for shower drying innovation. As per Gharsallaoui, Spray drying process have a few favorable circumstances that it very well may be structured by any limit required. The activity of splash drying innovation is ceaseless and can adjust full programmed control (Gharsallaoui, Roudaut, Chambin, Voilley, Saurel, 2007). Both warmth safe and warmth touchy items can be utilized for shower drying innovation. There are additionally a few restrictions that are found by scientists in the event of shower drying innovation. As indicated by Katta Gauvin, the concerned impediments are restricted adaptability in creating structures with complex morphologies and snappy medication discharge rates that show a burst impact. While investigating about splash drying innovation for milk emulsion, we have discovered basic boundaries of shower drying. In this report, it is fundamental to examine about those basic boundaries that makes shower dr ying process significant (Gauvin, Katta, 1976). Gulf Temperature of Air This basic boundary of splash drying innovation, scientist Michael characterizes that as much as higher the temperature of bay air, the dampness vanishing will be quicker. However, for this situation, powder is presented to higher temperature and this will adjust the both compound and physical properties of items that are heat delicate (Michael, 1993). Outlet Temperature of Air About this basic boundary, Maury characterizes that estimating of powder recuperation types of gear are represented by outlet temperature of air. As much as temperature of outlet will higher, bigger the size of powder recuperation hardware. The last dampness substance of powder is constrained by outlet air (Maury, Murphy, Kumar, Shi, Lee, 2005). Consistency The high consistency postpones right drop development. As much as speed will lower, lesser the vitality. Additionally, pressure is required to frame an example for shower. Strong Content As indicated by this basic factor of shower drying, care is required in this procedure with high strong loadings and it is important to keep up legitimate atomization that can guarantee right bead arrangement. Surface Tension The expansion of a modest quantity of surfactant can possibly bring down the surface pressure. This give bring about a wide splash design, higher drop speed and littler bead size. Like above talked about components, Feed Temperature, Volatility of Solvent and Nozzle Material are likewise considered as basic component of splash drying process. Thusly, by utilizing these basic components splash drying process performs milk emulsion drying. The procedure of milk emulsion has now improved. Different new advances and strategies have acquainted with upgrade procedure of milk emulsion drying in splash drying and these imaginative methods incorporate shower drying for stable injectable fluid arrangement, embodiment, granulation, bioavailability and inward breath

Hair. William Faulkner Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Hair. William Faulkner - Essay Example His separation from the occasions described permits him to be an empathetic and touchy pundit, whose sees we believe we can trust, despite the fact that Faulkner deceives us toward the end. He appears to comprehend Hawkshaw's connection to the young lady, and even treats her untimely sexual experiences with compassion instead of disturb: nature don't give any consideration to frameworks, not to mention ladies giving any consideration to them I state she was unable to support herself. It wasn't her issue (133-4). The story is in three sections, the second clarifying the first by withdrawing in time, and the third realizing the dnouement. Hawkshaw is introduced as a disconnected figure in a network, which the pundit Joseph Reed distinguishes just like a key theme in Faulkner stories. Faulkner without a gathering is without a perspective basic for his best story (Reed, 20). The gathering differs from story to story; it tends to be a family, or a specific social gathering, or, as in Hair, an entire town. Hawkshaw is discreetly kind to the young lady, and is so self-destroying that when he demands that I'll keep an eye on her, Maxey tells the storyteller that was the first occasion when he at any point heard him talk positive about anything (132). The young ladies' development is caught with fine economy. She strolls quick like young ladies do, at that point makes companions at school and passes not looking toward the window by any stretch of the imagination (132), with the goal that Hawkshaw's d edication to her is as of now under danger. Before long she got developed quick (133) and she is hitching up the customary straightforward gingham and such dresses that a thirteen-year-old youngster should wear (134). Hawkshaw has given her presents, including the doll which he never outlined for anybody around (133), however it is by all accounts clear to everybody that his enthusiasm for her isn't unfortunate. It is valued that there is a real love in his mentality, which is regarded by the others. At the point when the men discuss how she has gone to the awful, it was while Hawkshaw was not there (134), and when Maxey voices his unrefined doubts - Any elderly person that will mess with a little youngster, he's really awful - Matt's remark is a censure: the explanation is an ethical one, he thinks she is too youthful to even consider receiving gems from anyone that aint family to her (136). Part II fills from before, and lets us a little route into his actual reasoning, demonstrating that his enthusiasm for the young lady must be not kidding, ardent and profoundly human. He had hitched the Starnes little girl, demonstrating a genuine dedication to her and her government assistance, picking up barbering and heading out to work in Birmingham, Rode mostly in wagons and strolled the rest, returning each late spring to see the young lady (138). He burned through the entirety of his reserve funds on her dad's memorial service, and afterward began sparing again for the marriage. He carried on of develop commitment. The storyteller can't pass on Hawkshaw's anguish when she bites the dust. We just have the massively contacting subtlety of the image and the lock of hair, which both got lost, the hair and the image, via the post office some way or another (139). He dedicates himself then to serving her memory in the main way he can, by taking care of the home loan on the guardians ' home and restoring each April, as on a journey, to clean it The April get-away is absolutely fundamental to him, similar to a strict recognition. At past managers' he had surrendered his activity

The History and Purpose of Duty to Warn in Therapy

The History and Purpose of Duty to Warn in Therapy Basics Print The History and Purpose of Duty to Warn in Therapy By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Reviewed by Reviewed by Amy Morin, LCSW on November 27, 2019 facebook twitter instagram Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist, author of the bestselling book 13 Things Mentally Strong People Dont Do, and a highly sought-after speaker. Learn about our Wellness Board Amy Morin, LCSW on November 27, 2019 BSIP / UIG / Getty Images More in Psychology Basics Psychotherapy Student Resources History and Biographies Theories Phobias Emotions Sleep and Dreaming Duty to warn refers to the responsibility of a counselor or therapist to inform third parties or authorities if a client poses a threat to himself or herself or another identifiable individual.?? It is one of just a few instances where a therapist can breach client confidentiality. Normally, ethical guidelines require that therapists keep information revealed during therapy strictly private. What Is Duty to Warn? The American Psychological Associations Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct specify how and when confidential information can be disclosed. These ethical guidelines suggest that private information can only be disclosed with the permission of the individual or as permitted by the law.?? Legal instances where such information can be revealed include when it is necessary to provide professional services, when obtaining consultations from other professionals, to obtain payment for services, and to protect the client and other parties from potential harm. The specifics of a legal duty to warn vary by state. In most cases:A therapist is required to breach confidentiality if clients pose an imminent threat to either themselves, the therapist, or a third party.The necessary information must be divulged to someone who is capable of taking action to reduce the threat.In most cases, the person who is in danger and law enforcement would be notified. Cases That Established Legal Duty to Warn Two landmark legal cases established therapists legal obligations to breach confidentiality if they believe a client poses a risk to himself or others. Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California (1976) Legal duty to warn was first established in the case of Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California (1976) where a therapist failed to inform a young woman and her parents of specific death threats made by a client.?? Tatiana Tarasoff and Prosenjit Poddar met in 1968 as students at the University of California, Berkeley. Poddar came to believe that the two were in a serious relationship, a view that was not shared by Tarasoff. When she expressed that she was not interested in a romantic relationship, Poddar began to stalk her and experienced a serious emotional breakdown. In 1969, Poddar became a patient of a psychologist named Dr. Lawrence Moore at UC Berkeleys Cowell Memorial Hospital. After expressing his intentions to kill Tarasoff to his therapist, Moore alerted campus police and gave his opinion that Poddar required hospitalization and that he posed a danger to himself and others. Poddar was detained briefly but appeared rational and stable, leading police to release him with a promise that he would stay away from Tarasoff. Soon afterward, the director of the psychiatry department at Cowell Memorial Hospital ordered the written letter and therapy notes destroyed. Neither the police nor Poddars therapists warned Tatiana Tarasoff or her family of the threats. Poddar continued to stalk the young woman and on October 27, 1969, he murdered her. Poddar went to the Tarasoff home armed with a kitchen knife and a pellet gun. After a confrontation, Tarasoff screamed for help, at which point Poddar shot her with the pellet gun. She fled into the yard, but Poddar caught her and proceeded to stab her to death with the kitchen knife. He then entered the Tarasoff home and alerted the police. After his arrest, Poddar was ?diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia, the same diagnosis Moore had initially made. Her parents filed a lawsuit against the therapists and the University of California, Berkeley. They contended that their daughter should have been warned of the danger, while the defendants held that their responsibility was to maintain the confidentiality of their client. The lower courts agreed with the defendants and the case was initially dismissed. The Tarasoff’s appealed the case to the California Supreme Court. While the case was eventually settled out of court for a significant sum, the higher courts 1976 ruling specified that confidentiality was secondary to the publics safety. Jablonski by Pahls v. United States (1983) The case of Jablonski by Pahls v. the United States further extended the responsibilities of duty to warn by including the review of previous records that might include a history of violent behavior.?? The ruling originated from a case in which a doctor conducted a risk assessment of a client, Mr. Jablonski, but did not review Jablonskis history of violence. As a result, the clients girlfriend, Ms. Kimball, was not warned about Jablonskis history of violent behavior. When  Jablonski was released, he then killed Kimball. Duty to warn gives counselors and therapists the right and obligation to breach confidentiality if they believe a client poses a risk to another person. It also protects clinicians from prosecution for breach of confidentiality if they have reasonable suspicion that the client might be a danger to himself or others. Duty to Warn Examples It is important to note that duty to warn only obligates therapists to inform individuals and authorities of any specific threats. They should not discuss the details of their patients care or treatment. Any information that is not relevant to the immediate threat should remain confidential. There continues to be a debate about what exactly constitutes a credible threat. Direct, specific plots to harm to kill another individual would clearly trigger a duty to warn, but in other cases, a therapist must use their best judgment to determine if a less-clear threat presents a serious danger. A few examples of times when a therapist would need to consider their ethical and legal obligations include: A client states that they want to kill a colleague, but do not name a specific individualA patient says that they fantasize about killing a specific person, but then state that they would never actually do itA client as the means to commit harm, such as owning firearms, and expresses extreme anger toward a specific individual but never makes a specific threat An assessment of a potential threat is often considered in the same way that a therapist would assess suicide risk. The therapist might consider the seriousness and specificity of the threat itself, the clients past history of violent or aggressive behavior, and recent symptom progression. Opposing Views While it has been decades since the legal duty to warn was first established, it remains a topic of debate. In 2013, the then-president of the APA Donald N. Bersoff suggested that the Tarasoff ruling was a poor decision. Client confidentiality, he proposed, was paramount and breaching it undercuts the trust that clients place in their mental health providers. Breaking this confidentiality should only happen as a last resort, Bersoff believes.?? Some suggest that had Moore not reported the threats, Poddar may have remained in treatment. Had he continued to receive treatment, perhaps he might have recovered from his obsession and  Tarasoff might not have been killed. However, there is simply no way to know if the situation may have played out in this way. A Word From Verywell Psychologists often face ethical dilemmas and are required to use their best judgment to determine the right course of action. Duty to warn presents a challenge in many instances, but it is one that therapists are legally obligated to surmount. What Ethical Guidelines Do Psychologists Follow?

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Sustainability and Issues in Indonesia Essay - 632 Words

I am determined to help building a better Indonesia by making it more sustainable. Sustainability is vital because natural resources have been the main source of conflict in Indonesia. Indonesia has 132.9 million hectare of forest out of 192.2 million hectare land, which means almost nearly 70 percent of Indonesian people dealt in natural resources management issues. According to Robecosams Countries Sustainable Ranking in 2013, Indonesia was ranked 56 (out of 59 countries, with the first country being the most sustainable). Indonesia scored very low in environmental aspect, which has come to no surprise viewing Indonesias deforestation rate at 1.08 million hectare/year. This is the repercussion of Indonesia natural resources wealth†¦show more content†¦WARSI has helped established 13 Village Forest establishment in Jambi and West Sumatera Province as a scheme from community-based forest management model. Although we have succeeded in assisting 13 villages to secure their fo rest, yet there still numerous villages and many customary people of whose forest still in verge of uncertainty. As much as we tried to work on the Village Forest scheme, in the end we have to wait for the Ministry of Forestry to formulate it that could take up until two years, even more. Influencing the government policy by is utmost challenging because there are things that cannot be reached without legal authority. Often we could only push as much but the policy remains the same because we lack of power. Thus, my professional goal is to be able to sit in governmental position to be able to affect the decision-making process so that the government could be more effective in conducting environmental and development policy. My plan in working in this NGO is to be able know the structure and problem of Indonesian government from the outside. After a year working in the NGO, I wish to pursue my master education in the sector sustainability and development. Courses with cutting-edge le arning toolkits, as well as hands-on experience will equip me with the knowledge and skills necessary to be more competitive and competent. Learning about the emerging concept ofShow MoreRelatedIndonesi A Country Of Indonesia1545 Words   |  7 PagesLocated between the Indian and Pacific oceans in the Southeast Asia, Indonesia ranked number four (as in 2014), as the most populous country in the world with 252,812,245 milion people (worldometers, n.d.). 13,194,000 million people alone are living in the capital city of Indonesia, Jakarta (national geographic, n.d). It is a country consists of 17,000 islands; around 6000 islands are inhabited and Indonesia is linked to the equator (Infoplease, n.d). 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Pintura Ecuatoriana Free Essays

SALLY SWANSONG CASE Possibilities – Alternatives for both parts: Sally (1) and Lyric Opera Company(2) 1 2 Sally should not sing in this opera, she could do that in other opportunity| Lyric Opera Company should contract to other young opera singer to the principle role| She could teach to any another young opera singers. | It could contract an opera singer with experience or anyone whose it could not have to pay a lot of money| Looking for the principle role in other musical| Looking for another cheap principal singer with experience. Looking for a job in others places or public activities related to the art world in order to be recognized once again e. We will write a custom essay sample on Pintura Ecuatoriana or any similar topic only for you Order Now g. TV commercials. It could be accessible, because of her experience. | Contracting a very well-known opera singer, not only national, so international one. Announcing that by press conference to reduce extra marketing expenses. | Having the principal role as the opera singer, collecting not a high salary because of the uncertain result of the audience. Offering the main role to a secondary opera singer, emphasizing that it would be a great opportunity to her career. | 1. Two possible alternatives: Sally: (-) Looking for another title role in another place by another company, using their experience and she would be able to relaunch her career in this way. (+) Getting the contract with this company. As a result, having successful and getting recognition. Lyric Opera Company: (-) Hire another opera singer in the title role as cheaply as possible (it is mportant to emphasize that she would have only three weeks to the opening) (+) To win time, it can contract to Sally with a little mar gin of negative answer of the audience because of her experience, possible conventions and good benefits in terms of money (because it is not a good show, it could pay the minimum to Sally) 2. Lyric Opera Company, Sally and us – Interest LYRIC OPERA COMPANY: * $ (All related to money) Winning more than they expected a percentage of 85%. Saving as much as possible ($). Hiring a principal opera singer at the lowest price possible for avoiding budget problems * They want to designate the primary role of the play at the shortest possible time because the premiere would be in three weeks. * Maintain its prestige * In monetary terms, To be successful is necessary to sell over 85% of the locations * No problems during the premiere with the principal opera singer SALLY: * To be recognized, resurging as the phoenix bird. It could be possible if she had only the principle role, * Relaunching her career. Achieving contract with Lyric Opera company to access better paying to future roles * To succeed, it is necessary that the play could have the necessary promotions and marketing suitable for proper ticket sales (over 80%) * Having the TV Contract to $ 45000 WE: * Having recognition for Sally case, being this our first job. * Achieving a commission in line with sales and the success of the play * Give all the benefices to Sally in this case, to satisfy her necessities and be recommended later, so it is important to achieve the contract with the TV to $ 45,000 or projecting her career in the future * If we manage a ood bargain in the case of Sally, we could achieve reputation 3. WIN TO WIN options What happen if Sally performs the Opera? Result: Both WIN WIN TO WIN| Sally| If Sally does the title role of the opera, she will get the revival and recognition. And she will have more than commissions, which was looking for futures contracts and other activities, immersed in the art world. Lyric Opera Company| Hiring Sally who has experience, thus reducing the time of pre paration for the premiere of the soon play; it is more predictable for the company, so it could solve the main problem of â€Å"looking for the principal opera singer†| Us (legal representatives)| Being our first case, the success of Sally, will benefice us in terms of recognition. | Additionally: * As marketing program, it could be a good option to make agreements with institutions such as the educational, cultural in order to increase ticket sales for the play and it would be possible to achieve the 80% provided by the company to be considered a success. As Sally does not charge commission for this agreement, Lyric Opera Cia could be benefited from the sale of tickets, without having invested heavily in promotions. * In terms of money, Opera Company can hire Sally with a fixed value that is 15% or 20% less than market price. So, Sally could have her contract, and Opera Company hires someone before the premiere of the play at a lower cost * If it gets 85% predicted, it will be given to the respective payment to Sally and commissions. If it is not possible â€Å"sales expectations†, it could represent less payment or the minimum to Sally. But the company must comply with the relevant marketing, then If Sally gets the lead role, and she could relaunch her career for futures contracts, she may make donations to Lyric Opera Cia. * Because of her experience, and the success he had in the past, there are people who continue following her so the Company can use his name for marketing campaigns. What happen if other Soprano performs the Opera? Result: WIN TO WIN| Sally| . | Lyric Opera Company| | Us (legal representatives)| | How to cite Pintura Ecuatoriana, Essay examples

Language and Memory Psychology Research Paper Essay Example

Language and Memory Psychology Research Paper Essay Semantic memory refers to our knowledge of words, their meanings, and their relationships to each other and to the physical world. It may be thought of as a dictionary, encyclopedia, and thesaurus, all rolled into one (Tulving, 1972). A model of semantic memory refers to a description of how the semantic features of a word are represented, how these representations can be combined into larger units of meaning (such as phrases and sentences), what deductions can be made about a word based on the context in which it appears, and how word meaning is related to the perceptual systems that provide access to the world (McNamara Holbrook, 2003). In an object-based view of semantics, words are considered to be associated if the objects they refer to have shared properties. Closeness is a measure of the similarity between objects. The property investigated may be common features or inclusion in a common category. Category membership can be treated as a strongly weighted feature, making these two ways of classifying words essentially identical. As a quick example, consider the words cat and dog. Both have teeth, claws, fur and a tail. Additionally, both can be included in the category pets. In an object-based view of semantics, the word cat would be closely semantically related to dog. We will write a custom essay sample on Language and Memory Psychology Research Paper specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Language and Memory Psychology Research Paper specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Language and Memory Psychology Research Paper specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer As Stone et al (2004) points out, the cognitive science and sociocultural perspectives differ considerably in their focus to the study of language. However, despite the fact that the difference in orientation is due to the fact that the cognitive scientists have a long tradition of interest in grammar, while sociocultural group has been primarily interested in meaning and pragmatics (Stone et al, 2004, p.11), both groups share the same understanding of language productions stages, namely message, encoding of it into linguistic form, encoding of linguistic form into speech, decoding of speech into linguistic form, and decoding of linguistic form into a meaning. Accessing language appropriately depends on the organization of the knowledge base that stores words and their meanings. Meanings or concepts are stored in a semantic network, and words are stored in a lexical network. According to Collins and Loftus (1975), concepts are stored as nodes that are organized by semantic similarity or relatedness. The greater the similarity between two concepts, the closer the concepts are stored within the network. For example, the concept of sparrow may be stored close to eagle, but hawk may be stored closer to eagle because these birds have more in common. Each node in the lexical network is linked to its corresponding concept node. When a concept is activated by a word that is heard or read, this activation spreads from this concept to the most closely related nodes. As this activation spreads outward, its strength decays over time. This spreading activation process is considered to be automatic. Automatic activation occurs subconsciously or without an individual’s intent, and it is fast acting and does not consume processing resources in working memory. After a short-lived â€Å"automatic† period of activation, word processing may continue in a strat egic manner known as controlled processing. Controlled processing operates under the influence of conscious awareness, is slow acting, and consumes resources in working memory. One procedure that allows researchers to distinguish automatic from controlled processing is a primed lexical decision task, in which participants decide whether a given letter string is a real word. In this task, words are presented in pairs, with the first word known as a prime and the second word as a target. Participants do not respond to the prime, but do make an overt response to the target. For example, if the prime-target pair is nurse-doctor, the prime nurse is presented for a set duration and requires no response. Next the target doctor is presented and the participant makes a recordable â€Å"YES or NO† response indicating whether the target is a real word. Now, let us consider how the primed lexical decision task allows us to study processing within the semantic network. When nurse is activated in the lexical-semantic network, there is a corresponding activation of related nodes (e.g., doctor, hospital, patient, etc.). This early activation of related words, such as doctor, elicits a relatively fast lexical response. On the other hand, unrelated words, such as nurse-bread, are stored farther away from each other. Activation of nurse spreads to the activation of healthcare related nodes and, thus, is not likely to activate bread. Without prior activation, bread elicits a relatively slow lexical response. The previous discussion of activation in semantic memory introduced the levels of automatic and controlled processing. These levels can be studied somewhat separately by manipulating aspects of the primed lexical decision task. First, let us examine how the manipulation is accomplished when the focus is on controlled processing. Controlled (strategic) processing operates under the influence of conscious awareness, is slow acting and is a mechanism of limited-capacity. In priming tasks, controlled processing may be evident before or after the target has been presented. After a target is presented, postlexical controlled processing consists of mental operations influenced by the relationship between a prime and target. One postlexical strategy is semantic matching in which participants check the semantic relationship between a prime and a target. Viewing the prime salt followed by the target pepper activates a quicker â€Å"YES† response because these words â€Å"match† semantically. The semantic matching strategy operates in reverse with an unrelated prime. A non-match (e.g., salt-robin) produces a bias for participants to respond â€Å"NO†, which is incorrect for the task of lexical decision. Because neurologically intact participants still make mostly accurate responses, it is possible that they suppress the urge to respond â€Å"NO.† This strategic inhibition requires effort in working memory and, therefore, is likely to add time to a lexical decision (Brown, Hagoort, Chwilla, 2000). Automatic processing is considered to consist of the spreading activation process described earlier. Thus, spreading activation is fast acting, occurs subconsciously, and does not interfere with coexisting mental activity. Automatic spreading activation accounts for priming that occurs when the interval between the prime and target is so brief that it is nearly imperceptable. The activation spreads out following a structure that corresponds to the relatedness among concepts; and, thus, the semantic relatedness of primes is facilitative of targets at these very brief intervals. On the other hand, spreading activation does not produce the inhibition that we might expect when a prime is not semantically related to the target. Inhibition is the result of a strategic or effortful mental activity. Therefore, more time between a prime and target is required for inhibition to develop. An unrelated prime, like a neutral prime, acts merely as an uninformative or misleading variable. References